Is "akicita" a direct translation for "warrior?" I have always seen it translated as "police."
Is it not true that warriors societies are different from the akicita? Or that one of the warrior societies in the tribal group may be selected to perform akicita duties for the particular village for a year or so...and that this duty could be rotated around amongst the several warrior societies present in that tribe?
Thanks,
Clair
Some historical Lakota Warrior Societies.
Toka'la (Fox or Sly Fox) Members of this society were said to be as agile and clever in battle as is the fox. The members would wear a fox pelt like a yoke, with the head hanging in front and the tail hanging in back. Warriors or iki'cize who joined this society pledged to uphold the high ideals of bravery, generosity, and honor. Fox-men as they were called, were noted for their care and concern for the tribe in peaceful times as well as in times of war, and if something was needed to be done, no matter what the danger or difficulty, they frequently were the first to volunteer. The Toka'la was one of the societies from whose members, were frequently chosen to serve as Aki'cita. Aki'cita has often been translated as "soldier," but it's implied meaning is more like "guard" or "police." These Aki'cita would act as "guards" and watch over the tribe when the tribe moved from one place to another and keep watch for enemy activity when a camp was chosen. Aki'cita also acted as "civil police" to preserve order in the camp, and had the right to punish offenders of tribal codes of conduct. Warriors chosen to serve as Aki'cita also had the responsibility to maintain strict control during a buffalo hunt.
Kangi'yuha (Crow Owners or Crow Carriers) One of the societies whose members were chosen to serve as Aki'cita, Crow Owners or "those that owned the crow," were proven and successful warriors. They emulated the crow, who was always first to arrive and take advantage of the carcus of a dead animal or a dead warrior on the battlefield. The members of the Crow Owners believed that by wearing a stuffed crow wrapped around their neck when they went into battle, their arrows would fly as straight and true as a crow is known to fly, and they would be first to claim honors against the enemy. It was the Crow Owners who often were selected to assist in the selection of suitable places for winter camps.
Cante'tinza (Brave Heart or Strong Heart) The purpose of the Strong Hearts were to be physically, emotionally, and spiritually capable of taking care of any emergency that would affect the tribe. Members had to pledge to codes of good moral character including self-control of one's actions and emotions, to be fearless in defense of the tribe, to take care of the poor and needy, and to be always ready at a moment's notice. One of the more prominent pieces of society regalia for Strong Heart members was an eagle feather headdress with a pair of buffalo horns, one on either side. Strong Hearts also served as Aki'cita when it was their turn.
Iho'ka (Badger)Another Aki'cita eligible society, the Badgers were said to have been started by a man who dreamed of a badger. Members were said to be amongst the most extreme warriors. They often took great risks against seemingly insurmountable odds, emulating the great tanacity found in the behavior of a badger, who will not think twice about going nose to nose with a bear 10 times it's size, and winning the fight. Among the notable insignia of this society are the society's crooked lances wrapped in wolf skin, quirts with one serated edge and otter fur wrist loops, and otter skin yokes, which were later adorned with trade mirrors to blind the enemy.
Sotka'yuha (Bare Lance Owners or Wand Carriers)
This was another society with very old origins. The symbolic "bare lance" was a straight lance with no war honors, eagerly waiting for each young warrior to accumulate their respective honors to be displayed. Young warriors would begin to test themselves in this society, although the membership was said to be limited to not more than 24 at any one time.
Miwa'tani (Mandan)
Sometimes referred to as the "Tall Ones" or the "Owl Feather Headdress" society, or the "No Flight" society. The members of this society were "exempt" from serving Aki'cita duties. The society was very old, even in the Buffalo days, and was said to have originated by a man who dreamed of an owl-being. Admission into the society was difficult, because one of the requirements was that each member pledge to sacrifice his own life in battle if need be, to save a wounded member. A notable feature of this society was the four "sash-wearer" positions. The wearers of the "society sashes" took on the obligation to stake themselves down to the ground with their sash during a desperate battle, as a signal that they would die in that spot, rather than submit to the enemy. They would fight in that spot till they were killed, or until a fellow society member released them.
Sunk'ska akan'yanka (White Horse Riders)
The White Horse Riders were primarily older, experienced warriors who would paint their many war exploits on their white horses for the enemy to see plainly from a distance. These older warriors also saw to it that the families of wounded warriors, who could not hunt because of their injuries, never went hungry.
Oma'ha Wacipi (aka Grass Dance)
The origins of this society originate with traditions among the Omaha tribe, and an early component of the society included rites involving a healing ceremony which included the Grass Dance. The Horse Dance and the Kettle Dance also have their origins within this society. The evolution of two of the most notable features of this society, the hair roach and the crow belt or feathered bustle, can still be seen at most intertribal Pow-Wows today.
Wi'ciska (White Marked or White Badges)
The White Marked society alludes to the many "white" golden eagle tail feather (white with black tips) war honors each member had. Society membership was made up of well established warriors with extensive experience, their feathered headdresses were impressive, with trailers extending to the ground, and each member had a robe or blanket with a quilled or beaded strip attached.
Keep in mind that the Lakota Aki'cita was not a society. As I understand it, at the beginning of the summer buffalo hunt, the leaders of a camp, members of the "Big Belly" or "Bulls" society, would select four members of one of the warrior societies to serve in the positions of head Aki'cita for that season. These four head Aki'cita would then choose other members from their particular warrior society, to serve as Aki'cita as the needs arose. The following season, the camp leaders would select four members from a different warrior society to serve as head Aki'cita, and the cycle would continue like that.
While it was not unusual for a warrior to belong to more than one warrior society in his lifetime as he gained experience and honors, it would be highly unusual to belong to more than one warrior society at the same time. Each society being intensely loyal to it's membership. Some warrior societies were for a certain age group, others were for experienced warriors, while still others were for the new warriors looking to prove themselves.
For further reference, go to:
Wissler, Clark.
Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota. American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, Vol. 11, Part 1, New York, 1912.
Densmore, Frances.
Teton Sioux Music. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Bulletin 61, Washington, DC, 1918. ("Military Societies" pp. 311-331)
Mails, Thomas E.
The Mystic Warriors of the Plains. Doubleday & Co. Inc., New York, 1972.
Mails, Thomas E.
Plains Indians: Dog Soldiers, Bear Men and Buffalo Women. Bonanza Books, New York, 1985. ("The Non-Graded Societies, The Sioux as Example" pp. 225-254.)